tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-53954917482264529302023-06-20T10:01:42.141-04:00SeioboResearch-based information on JapanHilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.comBlogger9125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-8680540497353961492011-03-18T09:12:00.003-04:002011-03-18T09:25:36.124-04:00How Dangerous is the Radiation from Fukushima Daiichi?So many different numbers and scales and claims are being bandied about regarding the radiation from the damaged Fukushima power plant, and the dangers it does or does not pose. It is all very confusing. I’ve tried to make sense of some of it below.<br /><br />I don’t know whether my calculations are valid (there’s many different kinds of radiation; some are more dangerous than others; also people absorb radiation at different rates; and there are no doubt many other complicating factors), but they are what I’ve been able to come up with. If anyone knows better (or I made some calculation or logical error) please let me know.<br /><br />According to Idaho State University’s <a href="http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/natural.htm">Radiation Information Network</a>, average yearly exposure to radiation in the United States is around 3600 microsieverts. This includes radiation from natural sources like radon in the air, or cosmic radiation from the sun, as well as radiation from medical tests. This is equivalent to 360 millirems (e-1)/ 3.6 millisieverts (e-3)/ 0.36 rems ( e-4)/ 0.0036 Sieverts (e-6).<br /><br /><a href="http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/docs/energy-good-bad.pdf">US regulations</a> cap nuclear power plant workers’ yearly exposure at 50 millisieverts (that’s 50,000 microsieverts). (See Table 4 on the link).<br /><br /><a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/16/us-japan-quake-health-idUSTRE72E9DL20110316">Reuters</a> reports that radiation exposure does not pose an elevated cancer risk until it reaches 100 millisieverts (that’s 100,000 microsieverts) a year. Even that level is disputed; the evidence that this amount does, in fact, increase cancer risk is far from conclusive, according to the <a href="http://hps.org/fukushima/">Health Physics Society</a>. (See the Power Point download on Radiation Effects).<br /><br /><a href="http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/docs/energy-good-bad.pdf">Acute radiation sickness</a> occurs in exposures of over .25 sieverts (that’s 250,000 microsieverts) in the course of a few hours or a day (See Table 2). In the US, rescue workers may be asked (on a volunteer basis) to expose themselves to up to twice this much radiation in "once in a lifetime" life-threatening <a href="http://www.hps.org/publicinformation/ate/q3092.html"> rescue situations</a>. <br /><br />So, where do the levels stand from radiation emitted by the Fukushima Daiichi power plant? In 66 measurements from 34 locations in Fukushima prefecture on Thursday Friday, March 17, the median level of radiation measured was 3.7 microsieverts/hour. Even if these levels continued for a full year, this radiation dose does not come close to the threshold for elevated cancer risk (3.7 * 24 *365 = 32,412).<br /><br />In Tokyo, March 17 readings show levels of radiation at .053 microsieverts/hour. That’s only about 1/70 of the median measurement in Fukushima, so really, Tokyo is fine, too.<br /><br />However, there are some stations in Fukushima that posted measurements far above the median, and these are quite worrisome. Stations 31, 32, and 33 (all located just outside the 30km perimeter to the northwest of the plant) recorded an average reading of 104.34 microsieverts/hour. The nine measurements from these three stations are by far the highest recorded by any station. At this level, 40 days of exposure increases the risk of cancer (104.34*24*40=100166.4).<br /><br />Radiation readings come from the Japanese government, and are available <a href="http://eq.wide.ad.jp/">here</a>.Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-42409585887830956702010-06-16T11:19:00.001-04:002010-06-16T11:22:20.512-04:00Moral Education and the DPJ<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="isiresearchsoft-com/cwyw" name="citation"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st2\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) }st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:595.3pt 841.9pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0; layout-grid:18.0pt;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, feelings tend to run high on the subject of moral education. During World War II and before, it was a vehicle for nationalist propaganda [1], and to postwar critics, it came to represent the powerful state’s intrusion into the private sphere. Many postwar educators rejected the idea of teaching moral education at school entirely, or demanded that control remain with teachers, schools, or municipalities, not with the national government [2]. In the opposing camp, traditionalists claimed that increased individualism made families and communities increasingly unable to provide moral guidance to children. Under these circumstances, advocates argued, the national government’s involvement was not only natural, but necessary [3]. </span></p> <br/><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">For the past decade, the trend has been towards greater involvement by the national government in moral education. In 2002, the government funded the printing of a new<i style=""> national</i> moral education textbook <st2:citation st="on">(the first since World War II)</st2:citation>, and distributed copies for every elementary and junior high school student [4]. Until that time, the Ministry of Education had issued loose teaching guidelines, but left teaching materials entirely to the teacher’s discretion. In practice, even after the release of the new textbook, teachers and schools had considerable freedom as to whether or not to use them [5], but the government heavily promoted them, and surveyed schools to monitor implementation [6]. </span></p> <br/><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Other laws and regulations further deepened national government involvement. In 2006, the Diet passed the new Fundamental Law of Education, which elevated moral education’s position in the curriculum as a whole. And new national curricular guidelines that come into effect in 2011 attempt to move the changes from the law books into the classroom [7]. <span style=""> </span></span></p> <br/> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">As the LDP government’s 2007 Basic Policy for Economic and Fiscal Reform makes clear, many law and policy makers connected national moral education with <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s economic revitalization [8]. The underlying assumption was that individual choices and moral behavior were partially to blame for economic stagnation, and moral education could correct the imbalance. </span></p> <br/> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">However, the DPJ’s electoral victory in August 2009 may mark the decline this view. During the DPJ-appointed Government Revitalization Unit’s hearings on budget issues, national expenditure on moral education came under fire. The committee recommended cutting these costs <st2:citation st="on">(which fund the national textbook series)</st2:citation> by one-third to a half [9]. Some reviewers took issue with the textbooks from an ideological perspective, while others merely felt that in times of budget crunch, the textbooks should not be a priority, and that municipalities and schools could build moral education curricula and design teaching materials on their own [10]. As a result of the hearings, the textbooks will no longer be distributed. The most recent edition will be posted online, and teachers can print out the pages they want to use [11]. </span></p> <br/> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the greater scheme of things, the DPJ’s changes to moral education are modest. But these modest changes demonstrate the DPJ’s stance that the issues <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> faces are structural and societal, not individual. Redirecting resources from moral education towards social programs is part and parcel of this broader agenda. <span style=""> </span></span></p> <br/><br/> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">1.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Doutoku Kyouiku no Kenkyuu 1</i>, Bukkyou Daigaku Tsuushin Kyoiku Repooto, July 24, 2006 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: <a href="http://yes-blue.com/stock/report/doutokukyouikunokennkyuu1.htm">http://yes-blue.com/stock/report/doutokukyouikunokennkyuu1.htm</a> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style=""> </span><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="">2.<span style=""> </span>Muroi, Osami, <i style="">Kokoro no Nooto no Kyouikuhou Kyouiku Gyouseijou no Mondaiten, </i>, Osaka Kyohouken Nyuusu, October, 2003 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: </span><a href="http://osaka.cool.ne.jp/kohoken/lib/khk210a1.htm">http://osaka.cool.ne.jp/kohoken/lib/khk210a1.htm</a></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(13, 13, 13);" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:10.0pt'"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="">3.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, <i style="">Mirai wo Hiraku Kokoro wo Sodateru Shien Katsudou no Juujitsu</i>, November 1, 2007 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/hyouka/kekka/07110104/002/015.pdf">http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/hyouka/kekka/07110104/002/015.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">4.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Kokoro no Nooto ha Fuhitsuyou ka</i>, Fukuoka Education Network, January 14, 2010<span style=""> </span>[cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.fenet.or.jp/log/eid127.html">http://www.fenet.or.jp/log/eid127.html</a></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: rgb(13, 13, 13);" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:10.0pt'"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="">5.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Uebu demo Shishou nashi</i>, Kanaloco, March 16, 2010 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: </span><a href="http://news.kanaloco.jp/serial/article/1003160002/">http://news.kanaloco.jp/serial/article/1003160002/</a> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">6.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, <i style="">Kokoro no Nooto no Katsuyou Joukyou ni tsuite</i>, May 19, 2003 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://osaka.cool.ne.jp/kohoken/lib/khk210a1.htm">http://osaka.cool.ne.jp/kohoken/lib/khk210a1.htm</a> <span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">7.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, <i style="">Shougakkou Gakushuu Shidou Youryou Kaisetsu Doutokuhen</i>, September 19, 2008 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2009/06/16/1234931_011.pdf">http://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2009/06/16/1234931_011.pdf</a> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">8.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Keizai Zaisei Kaikaku no Kihon Houshin 2007 ni tsuite</i>, pp. 38-40. June 19, 2007, [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from:</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/keizai/kakugi/070619kettei.pdf">http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/keizai/kakugi/070619kettei.pdf</a> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">9.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Kyouiku Shiwake ni Najimanai</i>, Yomiuri Shimbun, November 30, 2009 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from:</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/kyoiku/news/20091130-OYT8T00451.htm">http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/kyoiku/news/20091130-OYT8T00451.htm</a> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">10.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Kitei Rosen Doori</i>, <i style="">Doutoku Kyouiku ha Shukugen</i>, Sankei Shimbun, November 17, 2009 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://genyosya.blog16.fc2.com/blog-entry-1552.html">http://genyosya.blog16.fc2.com/blog-entry-1552.html</a> <span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">11.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Uebu demo Shishou nashi</i>, Kanaloco, March 16, 2010 [cited 2010 June 16]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://news.kanaloco.jp/serial/article/1003160002/">http://news.kanaloco.jp/serial/article/1003160002/</a> <span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-17738334979317454042010-05-04T16:31:00.007-04:002010-05-04T16:56:22.299-04:00Inequality and High School Tuition Breaks<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="isiresearchsoft-com/cwyw" name="citation"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) }st2\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In the hope of improving equity in education, the DPJ has made good on its campaign promise to eliminate tuition at public high schools. Until this year, public high schools <st2:citation st="on">(unlike elementary and middle schools)</st2:citation> charged monthly tuition of about $100 [1]. The DPJ’s bill, which came into effect on April 1, 2010 not only eliminates this tuition but also subsidizes yearly tuition at private high schools by at least $1200 per student and up to $2400 for students from low-income families [2]. *</span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Funding for tuition remissions will come primarily from a progressive tax increase on families with high school-aged children [3]. After the tax increase is factored in, a middleclass family with one child in high school and an income of $50,000-$60,000 can expect to be better off by $500-$600 a year, while families with annual incomes over $200,000 will only see a benefit of about $70 [4]. </span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">But will this actually increase equity in education? <span style=""> </span>According to Ministry of Education statistics, 97% of children who complete middle school proceed to high school [5], and in 2008 only 2208 students left high school for financial reasons [6]. So financial barriers to attending high school are not actually a widespread source of inequity in Japanese education, and a smaller program, targeted only at students financially unable to attend high school at all, would have been a more efficient use of these funds. </span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">A more serious issue is the link between students’ wealth and the quality of the high school education they receive. Students in the public school system attend neighborhood schools during elementary and middle school, but for high school, students compete for slots in high-quality public high schools. Although middle school tuition is fully funded by the government, parents of children in the public school system spend an average of $3000 per year per child on supplemental tutoring and classes during the middle school years to bolster their children’s chances of earning a place in a top high school [7]. Students with the resources to get outside education are more likely to get good grades [8] and have an obvious advantage when it comes to placement in a top-notch public high school, which in turn affects their competitiveness in college admissions and the job market. To seriously address inequity in education, the government should pay out more to families earlier in their children’s educational careers, even at the expense of reducing the subsidies for high school education. </span></p>
<br />
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">*Even though tuition has been eliminated at public high schools, attendance is not completely free of charge. The average cost to parents of sending a student to high school is still around $2400 per year; this figure includes non-tuition school fees, books and supplies, after-school activities, fieldtrips, and commuting expenses [9]. </span></p>
<br />
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:";" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">1.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Koukou Mushouka</i>, Yahoo News <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>,<i style=""> </i>Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://dailynews.yahoo.co.jp/fc/domestic/the_gratuitousness_of_the_senior_high_school/">http://dailynews.yahoo.co.jp/fc/domestic/the_gratuitousness_of_the_senior_high_school/</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Democratic Party of Japan, Manifesto, August, 2009 [cited 2010 May 4]; Available from:</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"> <a href="http://www.dpj.or.jp/special/manifesto2009/pdf/manifesto_2009.pdf">http://www.dpj.or.jp/special/manifesto2009/pdf/manifesto_2009.pdf</a>. <span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><span style="">2.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Koukou Mushoukahou Seiritsu 4gatsu 1tachi Jikkou Chousen Gakkou ha Toumen Taishougai </i>, Asahi Shimbun, March 31, 2010<span style=""> </span>[cited 2010 May 4]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.asahi.com/seikenkotai2009/TKY201003310249.html">http://www.asahi.com/seikenkotai2009/TKY201003310249.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">3.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Koukou Mushouka ha<span style=""> </span>Futanzou Furiisukuuru ya Teijisei no Oyara Uttae</i></span><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" > </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">Asahi Shimbun, March 29, 2010 <span style=""> </span>[cited 2010 May 4]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/0329/TKY201003280332.html">http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/0329/TKY201003280332.html</a>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">4.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, <i style="">Tokutei Fuyou Koujo (16sai Ijou 19sai minan) no Minaoshi (Shisan)</i>, December, 2009 <span style=""> </span>[cited 2010 May 4]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.cao.go.jp/zei-cho/gijiroku/pdf/21zen22kai3.pdf">http://www.cao.go.jp/zei-cho/gijiroku/pdf/21zen22kai3.pdf</a> .</span><span style="color: rgb(13, 13, 13);font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-US" ><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="';font-size:10.0pt';"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><span style="">5.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Koutou Gakkou Kyouiku Kaikaku no Suishin</i>, [cited 2010 May 4]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/kaikaku/main8_a2.htm">http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/kaikaku/main8_a2.htm</a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">6.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, <i style="">Heisei 20nendo Jidou Seito no Mondai Koudou nado Seito Shidoujou no Shomondai ni Kansuru Chousa,</i> July, 2009 [cited 2010 May 4]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/21/12/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2010/03/12/1288459_2.pdf">http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/21/12/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2010/03/12/1288459_2.pdf</a> <span style="">p.21. </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">7.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, <i style="">Kekka Gaiyou – Heisei 20nendo Kodomo no Gakushuuhi Chousa</i>, March, 2010 [cited 2010 May 4]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/chousa03/gakushuuhi/kekka/k_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2010/03/19/1289326_2.pdf">http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/chousa03/gakushuuhi/kekka/k_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2010/03/19/1289326_2.pdf</a> <span style="">p. 1. </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">8.<span style=""> </span>Benesse Kyoiku Kenkyuu Sentaa, <i style="">Katei Gakushuu Shidou ga Gakuryoku no Nikyokuka wo Fusegu</i>, View 21 Chuugakuban, April, 2006 [cited 2010 May 4]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://benesse.jp/berd/center/open/chu/view21/2006/04/c03data_03.html">http://benesse.jp/berd/center/open/chu/view21/2006/04/c03data_03.html</a> <span style="">p.3. </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">9.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, <i style="">Kekka Gaiyou – Heisei 20nendo Kodomo no Gakushuuhi Chousa</i>, March, 2010 [cited 2010 May 4]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/chousa03/gakushuuhi/kekka/k_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2010/03/19/1289326_2.pdf">http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/chousa03/gakushuuhi/kekka/k_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2010/03/19/1289326_2.pdf</a> <span style="">p. 10.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-34814494449949443652010-03-29T14:32:00.002-04:002010-03-29T14:47:00.020-04:00Non-Citizen Voting Rights<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; 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text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In 1993, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s Supreme Court ruled that the constitution guarantees voting rights only to Japanese citizens, but that a hypothetical national law granting local suffrage to foreigners would be constitutionally acceptable [1]. Nevertheless, because of influential rightist elements in the LDP, no such laws have passed in the 17 years since the Supreme Court decision, despite repeated attempts by the Komeito and the DPJ, and signs that a large majority of the Japanese population supports such rights [2]. <span style=""> </span></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ichiro Ozawa, the DPJ’s Secretary General, has strongly pushed a proposal that would grant local suffrage to the over 900,000 foreigners with permanent residency status [3]. After the DPJ took power in August 2009, it seemed briefly that, with his support, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> might join the growing number of countries with some form of non-citizen voting rights* as early as this year. </span></p>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Mindan <st2:citation st="on">(<span style=";font-family:";" lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">在日本大韓民国民団</span></span>, the nationwide association of South Koreans in Japan)</st2:citation> was instrumental in bringing this issue to the fore; in the lead up to the August 2009 elections, Mindan threw its support behind DPJ proponents of the policy [4]. Ozawa values this support highly, and his hurry to deliver on the campaign promise may be in part a bid to maintain Mindan’s support during the election in the summer of 2010. However, the DPJ has yet to submit a bill, and in face of opposition from within the party and the ruling coalition, appears to have shelved the proposal for the time being [5]. </span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Ironically, it may have been Mindan’s crucial support for voting rights that has helped solidify the opposition to Ozawa’s proposal. Opponents’ most urgent criticism is that foreigner suffrage would provide an avenue for foreign governments to influence internal affairs [6]; as Mindan receives operating funds from the South Korean government [7], its success in pushing the issue this far seems to prove the opponents’ point. </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In actuality, this argument completely mischaracterizes Mindan’s accomplishment, and the implications of foreign suffrage. In the long term, Mindan’s movement would not primarily benefit <st1:country-region st="on">South Korea</st1:country-region>, or even Koreans in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Since Koreans are <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s oldest foreign minority, they are also the most integrated. The number of Koreans with permanent residence actually decreases every year, as more long-term residents naturalize [8]. And as many who have not naturalized have lived in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> for up to four generations, it is highly unlikely that obeying hypothetical marching orders from the South Korean government would benefit them in any way. </span></p>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Furthermore, the permanent foreign resident community is increasingly diverse: Chinese, Brazilians and Filipinos all make up a growing share [9]. Although Koreans historically have held a supermajority, in the future, no single nationality will dominate <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s foreign population. This growing diversity makes it even more<i style=""> </i>unlikely that large numbers of non-citizens would be able to organize along national lines to successfully promote their home country’s national interests to the detriment of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s, even if they wanted to, which the evidence suggests that they do not. </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">There are plenty of legitimate arguments for and against foreigner voting rights, but there is no evidence to support that interference by foreign governments is one of them. Hopefully proponents will debunk this baseless criticism, and voters and lawmakers will consider the proposal on its actual merits and demerits, not on ill-reasoned paranoia. </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">* </span><span lang="EN-US">Around 40 countries allow some form of non-citizen suffrage. EU member nations permit foreign residents who hold citizenship in another EU country to vote in local elections; a smaller number of countries, including Korea, Venezuela, and Belgium grant local voting rights to foreigners who have met a multi-year residency requirement and <st2:citation st="on">(in some cases)</st2:citation> hold specific visas [10] .<span style=""> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">1.<span style=""> </span>Supreme Court of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>,<i style=""> Senkyo Jinmeibou Futouroku Shobun ni taisuru Igi no Moshide Kyakka Kettei Torikeshi</i>, February 28, 1993 [cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: <a href="http://www.courts.go.jp/search/jhsp0030?action_id=dspDetail&hanreiSrchKbn=02&hanreiNo=25633&hanreiKbn=01">http://www.courts.go.jp/search/jhsp0030?action_id=dspDetail&hanreiSrchKbn=02&hanreiNo=25633&hanreiKbn=01</a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"> <span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><span style="">2.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Gaikokujin Sanseiken ni Sansei 60%, Hantai 29% Asahi Shimbun Chousa</i>, Asahi Shimbun, January 19, 2010 <span style=""> </span>[cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: </span></span><span style="color: rgb(13, 13, 13);font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-US" ><a href="http://www.asahi.com/special/08003/TKY201001180431.html">http://www.asahi.com/special/08003/TKY201001180431.html</a> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">3.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Hoshuuha Hanpatsu Kamaeru Minshu</i>, Asahi Shimbun, December 2, 2009<span style=""> </span>[cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://mytown.asahi.com/aichi/news.php?k_id=24000120912020001">http://mytown.asahi.com/aichi/news.php?k_id=24000120912020001</a>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">4.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Zainichi Mindan "Gaikokujin Sanseiken ni Sansei no Kohou wo Shien"</i>, Toua Nippou, August 20, 2009<span style=""> </span>[cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://japan.donga.com/srv/service.php3?bicode=060000&biid=2009082046918">http://japan.donga.com/srv/service.php3?bicode=060000&biid=2009082046918</a> .</span><span style="color: rgb(13, 13, 13);font-size:10pt;" lang="EN-US" ><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="';font-size:10.0pt';"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><span style="">5.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Gaikokujin no Chihou Senkyoken, Shushou ga Shinchou Shisei</i>, February 9, 2006 [cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/feature/20100116-014762/news/20100209-OYT1T01090.htm">http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/feature/20100116-014762/news/20100209-OYT1T01090.htm</a> . <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">6.<span style=""> </span>Nagao, Kazuhiro, <i style="">Gaikokujin Senkyoken Dounyuu ha Kenpou Ihan</i>, Chuo Online: Yomiuri Shimbun, February 25, 2010 [cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/adv/chuo/opinion/index.htm">http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/adv/chuo/opinion/index.htm</a> .<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><span style=""> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">Gaikokujin Senkyoken ni Hantai suru Kai, homepage<span style=""> [cited 2010 March 29];</span> <a href="http://www.geocities.jp/sanseiken_hantai/">http://www.geocities.jp/sanseiken_hantai/</a> <span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">7.<span style=""> </span>Nagao, Kazuhiro, <i style="">Gaikokujin Senkyoken Dounyuu ha Kenpou Ihan</i>, Chuo Online: Yomiuri Shimbun, February 25, 2010 [cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/adv/chuo/opinion/index.htm">http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/adv/chuo/opinion/index.htm</a> .<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">8.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Justice, <i style="">Touroku Gaikokujin Toukei Toukeihyo</i>, 2006-2008, [cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.moj.go.jp/TOUKEI/ichiran/touroku.html">http://www.moj.go.jp/TOUKEI/ichiran/touroku.html</a> .<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">9.<span style=""> </span>Ibid</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;">10.<span style=""> </span>Immigrant Voting Project, <i style="">Non-Citizen Voting Around the World.</i>, Updated September 2, 2006 [cited 2010 March 29]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><a href="http://www.immigrantvoting.org/material/world.html">http://www.immigrantvoting.org/material/world.html</a> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt;"><span style=""> </span><st1:country-region st="on"><i style="">Japan</i></st1:country-region><i style="">, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Korea</st1:place></st1:country-region></i>, Migration News, July 2006, Vol. 13, No. 3. <a href="http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3212_0_3_0">http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3212_0_3_0</a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-68122019749826391132010-01-25T15:55:00.004-05:002010-01-25T16:35:52.891-05:00International Marriage<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; 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panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:"MS ゴシック"; panose-1:2 11 6 9 7 2 5 8 2 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Gothic"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:modern; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS ゴシック"; panose-1:2 11 6 9 7 2 5 8 2 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:modern; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:"Table Grid"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">In 2007, more than 1 in 20 marriages <st1:citation st="on">(5.6%)</st1:citation> in <st2:place st="on"><st2:country-region st="on">Japan</st2:country-region></st2:place> took place between foreign and Japanese citizens [1]. Particularly striking are the figures for marriages between Japanese men and foreign women. In 80% of international marriages, the male partner is Japanese; and assuming all foreign women lived in Japan before marriage and are counted in the population statistics, 9.7% of unmarried women of foreign citizenship in Japan marry a Japanese man every year, while only 2.8% of unmarried Japanese women do [2]*. Clearly, Japanese men and foreign women are actively seeking each other out, but why? </span><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">Japanese men may be marrying foreign women because they have difficulties finding suitable Japanese partners. The average age of a Japanese man embarking on an international marriage is 43, <i style="">compared to 31 </i>for a Japanese man marrying a Japanese woman [3]. This suggests that marrying a foreign woman is not men’s first choice, but as men age, they become more willing to search further afield for a bride. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">As for foreign wives, economic incentives undoubtedly lure many to <st2:place st="on"><st2:country-region st="on">Japan</st2:country-region></st2:place> to live and work, but why do so many end up marrying Japanese men? Unlike their husbands, the average age of foreign women is 31, not so different from the average marriage age of 29 for Japanese women [4] —presumably these women have other options for marriage. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">The nationalities of women marrying Japanese men shed some light on this issue. Chinese woman account for 37% of foreign brides, Filipina 29%, Korean 18%, Thai 5%, and Brazilian 1%. [5] Given their percentages in the population, and thus the chance that they would meet and marry Japanese men under ordinary circumstances <st1:citation st="on">(i.e. not through a matchmaking service or marriage broker)</st1:citation>, these percentages are surprising. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <div align="center"> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">Nationality<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 108pt;" valign="top" width="144"> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">% of foreign brides<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 172.05pt;" valign="top" width="229"> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">% of foreign unmarried women<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">Chinese<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 108pt;" valign="top" width="144"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">37%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 172.05pt;" valign="top" width="229"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">26%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal"><st2:country-region st="on"><st2:place st="on"><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">Philippines</span></b></st2:place></st2:country-region><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 108pt;" valign="top" width="144"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">29%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 172.05pt;" valign="top" width="229"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">8%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">Korean<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 108pt;" valign="top" width="144"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">18%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 172.05pt;" valign="top" width="229"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">35%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">Thai<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 108pt;" valign="top" width="144"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">8%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 172.05pt;" valign="top" width="229"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">1%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">Brazilian <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 108pt;" valign="top" width="144"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">1%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0mm 5.4pt; width: 172.05pt;" valign="top" width="229"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">8%<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>
<br />[6 – Figures are from 2007]<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">
<br />The table shows that compared to their representation in Japan’s population of unmarried, foreign women, marriage rates to Japanese men are disproportionally low for Korean and Brazilian women, and high for Chinese, Filipina, and Thai women. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">Japanese immigration policy is very different for the high and low groups. Most Koreans in <st2:country-region st="on"><st2:place st="on">Japan</st2:place></st2:country-region> are special permanent residents whose employment is not restricted under immigration law, and most Brazilians enter under the Nikkei visa program, which likewise gives them long-term residency and access to employment [7]. Chinese, Filipina and Thai women, on the other hand, face high immigration barriers, and technically are not allowed to come to Japan for unskilled work at all. For these women, marrying a Japanese man is a fast track to a permanent residency visa, and legal access to any employment. In this way, <st2:country-region st="on"><st2:place st="on">Japan</st2:place></st2:country-region>’s immigration policy likely pushes certain nationalities of women towards marriage with Japanese men. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">Since women seem to marry for immigration status, ironically <st2:country-region st="on"><st2:place st="on">Japan</st2:place></st2:country-region>’s restrictive immigration policy may make it easier for older and perhaps desperate men to find wives from abroad. If the immigration policy were loosened, an unexpected side effect might actually be fewer international marriages, as foreign women are no longer forced to rely on marriage as their passport to <st2:country-region st="on"><st2:place st="on">Japan</st2:place></st2:country-region>. <span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">*Figures for are for women 15 years old and up. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><span style=""> </span></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="isiresearchsoft-com/cwyw" name="citation"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; 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text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">1.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, <i style="">Konin Kensuu, Nenji </i></span><i style=""><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">× Fusai no Kokusekibetsu</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">, Dai 1 pen Dai 2 Shou Dai 1-37 Hyou, 2007 [cited 2010 January 25]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/youran/data20k/1-37.xls">http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/youran/data20k/1-37.xls</a>. <span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><span style="">2.<span style=""> </span>Ibid. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, <i style="">Dai 3 Hyou Kokuseki (11 kubun), Haiguusha Kankei (4 kubun), Nenrei (5 sai Kaikyuu), Danjobetsu 15sai Ijou Gakokujinsuu</i>, 2008 [cited 2010 January 25]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?bid=000001012922&cycode=0">http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?bid=000001012922&cycode=0</a>. <span style=""><span style=""> </span></span></span><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10;" > </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, <i style="">Dai 5 Hyou Haiguusha Kankei (4 Kubun), Nenrei (Kakusai), Danjobetsu 15sai Ijou Jinkou oyobi Heikin Nenrei (Sousuu oyobi Nihonjin)- Zenkoku</i>, 2006 [cited 2010 January 25] </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?bid=000001005118&cycode=0">http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?bid=000001005118&cycode=0</a>.<span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">3.<span style=""> </span>Minstry of Health, Labor and Welfare, <i style="">Fusai no Kokusekibetsu ni mita Konin,</i> 2007 [cited 2010 January 25]; Available from:</span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><span style=";font-family:Century;font-size:10;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/hw/jinkou/tokusyu/konin06/konin06-3.html">http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/hw/jinkou/tokusyu/konin06/konin06-3.html</a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><span style=""></span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">4.<span style=""> </span>Ibid. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="';font-size:10.0pt';"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><span style="">5.<span style=""> </span>Ibid.<i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">6.<span style=""> </span>Ibid. <o:p></o:p>
<br />Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, <i style="">Dai 3 Hyou Kokuseki <st1:citation st="on">(11 kubun)</st1:citation>, Haiguusha Kankei <st1:citation st="on">(4 kubun)</st1:citation>, Nenrei <st1:citation st="on">(5 sai Kaikyuu)</st1:citation>, Danjobetsu 15sai Ijou Gakokujinsuu</i>, 2008 [cited 2010 January 25]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?bid=000001012922&cycode=0">http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?bid=000001012922&cycode=0</a>.
<br /></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">7.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p>Ministry </span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="isiresearchsoft-com/cwyw" name="citation"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><span style=";font-family:Century;font-size:10;" lang="EN-US"><span style=""> </span>of Justice, <i style="">Dai 1 Hyou Kokuseki <st1:citation st="on">(Shusshinchi)</st1:citation> betsu Zairyuushikaku <st1:citation st="on">(Zairyuu Mokuteki)</st1:citation> betsu Gaikokujin Tourokusuu</i>, 2009 [cited 2010 January 25]; Available from: </span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; 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<br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <span style=";font-family:Century;font-size:10;" lang="EN-US"></span><span style=";font-family:Century;font-size:10;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?lid=000001057947"></a></span><p></p><span style=";font-family:Century;font-size:10;" lang="EN-US">
<br /></span>Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-81433020974551203622009-12-16T10:12:00.003-05:002009-12-16T10:16:51.890-05:00Cheap Foreign Labor, Through the Back Door<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="isiresearchsoft-com/cwyw" name="citation"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st2\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) }st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Japan’s Industrial Trainee and Technical Internship Program brings 80,000 to 100,000 foreigners to Japan each year [1] to work for up to three years in industries such as agriculture, textiles, and food prep [2]. Japanese immigration policy makes no general provision for unskilled foreign workers; technically, no visa category exists for unskilled labor. <span style=""> </span>But by calling the participants “trainees” and “interns,” the program has created an ad hoc mechanism to bring these types of workers to <st2:country-region st="on"><st2:place st="on">Japan</st2:place></st2:country-region>. JITCO, the organization that facilitates the program, explains that it was introduced in 1993 in response to Japan’s labor shortage, but also touts “international development” and “skills and technology transfer” as its goals [3]. However, since most interns and trainees work low-paid, unskilled jobs, we can surmise that the program’s primary function is to provide cheap labor to struggling Japanese industries. </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">It is easy to see the program as a cynical creation of lawmakers eager to woo manufacturing and agricultural constituencies. Indeed, the record on this score is not good. Around 67% of participants come from mainland <st2:country-region st="on">China</st2:country-region>, while <st2:country-region st="on">Indonesia</st2:country-region>, <st2:country-region st="on">Thailand</st2:country-region>, the <st2:country-region st="on">Philippines</st2:country-region> and <st2:country-region st="on"><st2:place st="on">Vietnam</st2:place></st2:country-region> account for 22% combined [4]. Employers can easily exploit these often impoverished trainees and interns. The Asahi Shimbun describes how employers require the <st1:citation st="on">(often willing)</st1:citation> interns to work illegal overtime [5], and sometimes pay interns and trainees far below the minimum wage for their work [6]. Many program participants tolerate these abuses, because they expect to earn $500 - $700 per month, far more than they could earn in their home countries [7], although still far less than Japanese employees in similar jobs. These and other problems became so widespread that the US Department of State singled out the program in its Trafficking in Persons Report [8]. <span style=""> </span></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">However, lawmakers and bureaucrats did not sit idle while these criticisms came to light. The Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare, and the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry both investigated and recommended reforms. In response to this, in July 2009 the Diet overwhelmingly voted to strengthen legal protection for trainees and interns and increase government oversight of employers [9]. <span style=""> </span>For example, employers must now provide trainees with written contracts in their native languages, which are inspected by immigration officials. Trainees will be informed of their legal rights and obligations, and JITCO employees will inspect each place of employment once a month. The new regulations come into effect in one year [10].</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">These actions will certainly require a deeper investment of both government and employer resources. Even if the program is really a handout to crucial political constituencies, this heartening commitment demonstrates that the government is not willing to hand over cheap labor regardless of the human costs. </span></p>
<br /><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">1.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Justice, <i style="">Kenshuu, Ginou Jisshuu Seido no Genjou Oyobi Seido Kaisei no Gaiyou ni Tsuite</i>, March 34, 2009 [cited 2009 December 15]; Available from: <a href="http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/jinzai/jitsumu/dai4/siryou2_1.pdf">http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/jinzai/jitsumu/dai4/siryou2_1.pdf</a><span style=""> </span>p.3.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="">2.<span style=""> </span>Ibid, p. 2. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">3.<span style=""> </span>Japan Internation Training Cooperation Organization, <i style="">Seido no Enkaku, Haikei,</i> Chuugokujin Kenshuusei no Seikouritsu ha 3 Wari “Ihou Zangyou” mo Kakugo Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.jitco.or.jp/system/seido_enkakuhaikei.html">http://www.jitco.or.jp/system/seido_enkakuhaikei.html</a>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">4.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Justice, <i style="">Kenshuu, Ginou Jisshuu Seido no Genjou Oyobi Seido Kaisei no Gaiyou ni Tsuite</i>, March 34, 2009 [cited 2009 December 15]; Available from: <a href="http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/jinzai/jitsumu/dai4/siryou2_1.pdf">http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/jinzai/jitsumu/dai4/siryou2_1.pdf</a> p.3. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:10.0pt'"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="">5.<span style=""> </span>Okubo, Maki, <i style="">Chuugokujin Kenshuusei no Seikouritsu ha 3 Wari “Ihou Zangyou” mo Kakugo, </i>Asahi Shimbun,<i style=""> </i>18 July, 2009, [cited 2009 December 15]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.asahi.com/business/update/0718/TKY200907180200_01.html">http://www.asahi.com/business/update/0718/TKY200907180200_01.html</a>. <i style=""><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">6.<span style=""> </span>Okubo, Maki, ed, “<i style="">Osame no Nougyou” Jisshuusei ni Izon</i>, Asahi Shimbun, May 5, 2009 [cited 2009 December 15]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.asahi.com/special/08016/TKY200905040215.html">http://www.asahi.com/special/08016/TKY200905040215.html</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">7.<span style=""> </span>Ibid. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="">8.<span style=""> </span>US Department of State, <i style="">Trafficking in Persons Report 2009</i>, June, 2009 [cited 2009 December 15]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2009/123136.htm">http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2009/123136.htm</a> . <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">9.<span style=""> </span>Online Diet Record, </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">[001/066] 171 - House of Councilors, Full Meeting #36 July 8, 2009 <span style="">[cited 2009 December 15]; Available from: </span><a href="http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/cgi-bin/KENSAKU/swk_logout.cgi?SESSION=21550">http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/cgi-bin/KENSAKU/swk_logout.cgi?SESSION=21550</a><span style="">.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">10.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Justice, <i style="">Kenshuu, Ginou Jisshuu Seido no Mondaiten to Kongo no Sochi</i>, October 2, 2009 [cited 2009 December 10]; Google search "</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "MS 明朝";">研修技能実習制度の問題点と今後の措置</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">" to retrieve this document.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]-->
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><span style=""> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-family:;font-size:10.0pt;"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]-->Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-58437862555947903162009-11-09T10:26:00.003-05:002009-11-17T16:53:31.735-05:00Ambivalence towards Japan's New Jury System<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="State"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="isiresearchsoft-com/cwyw" name="citation"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="address"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="City"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) }st2\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Until this year, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> was one of the only major industrialized democracies to use bench trials <st2:citation st="on"><st1:address st="on">(trials by a judge or judges)</st1:address></st2:citation> in all criminal and civil cases [1]. To align <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> with the international standard, the Diet passed a law in 2004, effective this year, instituting a “lay judge” system [2]. <span style=""> </span>Under the new system, panels of three professional judges and six “lay judges” chosen by lottery from the voter rolls try crimes punishable by death or life imprisonment [3]. Majority vote determines the verdict, with the stipulation that the panel cannot find the defendant guilty if all three professional judges are opposed [4]. Sentencing takes place through a more complicated formula. Although a majority vote <st2:citation st="on">(including at least one judge)</st2:citation> can decide the sentence, because sentencing is not a yes/no proposition, situations arise in which no particular sentence has a majority. In this case, votes for the harshest sentence are added to votes for the second harshest sentence. If this creates a majority including at least one judge, the <span style=""> </span>second harshest sentence will stand. If not, the votes for the first and second harshest sentences will be added to those for the third harshest sentence, and so on, until a majority including at least one judge is reached [5]. <span style=""> </span></span></p> <br/> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Attitudes towards the new system are ambivalent at best—a government survey conducted in 2008 on 10,000 people nationwide found that over 80% of respondents did not want to participate [6]. <span style=""> </span>Nearly 40% of respondents in another survey expressed doubts that lay judges could make judgments as accurate and just as those of professional judges [7]. </span></p> <br/> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">However, this does not mean that the new system is doomed to failure. Although these figures are high, not wanting to participate as a juror and lack of faith in the jury system are not unique to <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Japan</st1:country-region></st1:place>. In the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">United States</st1:place></st1:country-region>, reluctant jurors may request postponement or simply fail to appear for duty. Rates vary across districts, but a <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Florida</st1:place></st1:state> court reported that more than 40% of those called for jury duty deferred or were truant. <st2:citation st="on">(Although some deferrers may have wished to serve, many jurors who did show up were no doubt reluctant.)</st2:citation> [8]. Other countries have even higher rates; polls in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> report that over 60% of respondents do not want to serve [9]. And although Americans, Brits, and Australians are documented as preferring jury trials to bench trials, a majority of Belgians and Spaniards respond that they prefer bench trials [10]. This preference has not led to the elimination of jury trials in either country—reluctance to serve and lack of faith in outcomes can coexist comfortably with a jury system. While public opinion may change the shape of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s jury system, the system itself is here to stay, despite citizens’ ambivalent attitudes.</span></p> <br/><br/><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">1.<span style=""> </span><i style="">The Jury is Out</i>, in The Economist. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: February 14, 2009. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="">2.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Saibanin no Sanka suru Keiji Saiban ni Kansuru Houritsu</i>, </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">May 28, 2004. Updated November 11, 2007 </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">[cited 2009 November 9]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.saibanin.courts.go.jp/shiryo/pdf/02.pdf">http://www.saibanin.courts.go.jp/shiryo/pdf/02.pdf</a>.<span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">3.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Saibanin no Sanka suru Keiji Houritsu no Gaiyou,</i> [cited 2009 November 9]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.saibanin.courts.go.jp/shiryo/pdf/01.pdf">http://www.saibanin.courts.go.jp/shiryo/pdf/01.pdf</a>.<span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">4.<span style=""> </span></span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">Iken ga Icchi shinakatara Hyouketsu ha dou naru no desu ka</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">, in <i style="">Saibanin Seido Q&A</i>, [cited 2009 November 9]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.saibanin.courts.go.jp/qa/c4_8.html">http://www.saibanin.courts.go.jp/qa/c4_8.html</a>.<span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">5.<span style=""> </span><i style="">5nin Ijou no Kahansuu de Kettei Yuuzai ni ha Saibankan no Sansei Hitsuyou</i>, in <i style="">Kyodo News</i>, March, 2009 [cited 2009 November 9]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://office.kyodo.co.jp/feature/saibanin/2009/03/post_194.html">http://office.kyodo.co.jp/feature/saibanin/2009/03/post_194.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">6.<span style=""> </span>Kabushikigaisha Inteeji Risaachi,<i style=""> Saibanin Seido ni Kansuru Ishiki Chousa Chousa Kekka Houkokusho</i>, p.23, March, 2008 [cited 2009 November 9]; Available from: <span style=""> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.saibanin.courts.go.jp/topics/pdf/08_04_01_isiki_tyousa/siryo1.pdf">http://www.saibanin.courts.go.jp/topics/pdf/08_04_01_isiki_tyousa/siryo1.pdf</a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:10.0pt'"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="">7.<span style=""> </span>Naikakufu Daijin Kanbou Seifu Kouhou Shitsu, <i style="">Saibanin Seido ni Kansuru Ninshiki, </i>February 2005, [cited 2009 November 9]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www8.cao.go.jp/survey/h16/h16-saiban/2-2.html">http://www8.cao.go.jp/survey/h16/h16-saiban/2-2.html</a><i style=""><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">8.<span style=""> </span>Losh, Susan Carol, and Robert G. Boatwright, <i style="">Lifestyle Factors, Status, and Civic Engagement: Issues of Age and Attitudes towards Jury Service</i>, in Legal System Journal, 2002<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 November 9]; Available from: </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4043/is_200201/ai_n9056067/pg_4/?tag=content;col1">http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4043/is_200201/ai_n9056067/pg_4/?tag=content;col1</a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">9.<span style=""> </span>Roberts, Julian V. and Mike Hough, <i style="">Public Opinion and the Jury: An International Literature Review, </i></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">p. 31, <span style="">February 2009, [cited 2009 November 9]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/docs/public-opinion-and-the-jury-by-roberts-and-hough-web%281%29.pdf">http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/docs/public-opinion-and-the-jury-by-roberts-and-hough-web(1).pdf</a></span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-US">10.<span style=""> </span>Ibid, p. 42. <i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></span></p> Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-25033981787848337822009-10-26T15:36:00.008-04:002009-12-17T13:45:50.715-05:00Is Japan Discarding Foreign Workers?<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceName"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceType"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="isiresearchsoft-com/cwyw" name="citation"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) }st2\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; 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panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:"MS ゴシック"; panose-1:2 11 6 9 7 2 5 8 2 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Gothic"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:modern; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS ゴシック"; panose-1:2 11 6 9 7 2 5 8 2 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:modern; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">In 2008,</span><span style="" lang="EN-US"> 258,498</span><span style="" lang="EN-US"> foreigners lived in Japan on long-term residency visas [1], which allow descendants of Japanese citizens <st2:citation st="on">(Nikkei)</st2:citation> and their families to live indefinitely in Japan [2].* As the economic outlook darkened in the fall of 2008, many of these visa holders lost their jobs. In response, the government began a program in April 2009 offering unemployed Nikkei residents 300,000yen, plus 200,000yen for every dependent family member, towards airfare to return to their home countries [3]. This program originally forbad aid recipients from returning to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> indefinitely, but in face of harsh international and domestic criticism, the Ministry of Health Labor and Welfare reduced the limit to three years in May 2009 [4]. As of December 1, 2009, 16,460 people had applied for the payment [5].</span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">The Japanese government argues that the program is merely one plank in the support platform for Nikkei Japanese, including counseling and retraining programs, and that the primary motivation is the welfare of those who might want to return to their home countries to ride out the economic crisis. On the other hand, many immigrants, researchers, and advocates deride the plan, claiming that companies and the government used foreign workers during good economic times, and are merely discarding them in bad [6]. </span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">Claims that the program is solely for the benefit of the Nikkei residents are obviously suspicious. The government must expect to save money on returnees—subsidized public health insurance, welfare, and unemployment benefits could easily run much higher than the cost of return airfares, even in the short term [7]. </span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="" lang="EN-US">But to what extent is the program humanitarian as well as pragmatic? For Nikkei desperate to return to their home countries, the economic assistance is no doubt welcome. However, we must ask why this program applies only to Nikkei visa holders, and not to foreign workers in other visa categories. Unlike other visa categories, the long-term resident visa allows holders to remain in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> indefinitely, regardless of employment status [8]. Most work visas for foreigners become invalid if the holder is unemployed for a certain length of time. <span style=""> </span>Were the main goal of the program humanitarian, it should logically be extended to all unemployed foreign workers. Because it targets only those who might choose to stay in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, we can only conclude that the primary motivation is fiscal, and that the government is indeed attempting to “discard” long-term foreign residents. </span></p>
<br />
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11;">*Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees are also covered by this visa category, although they make up only a small percentage of the total. </span></p>
<br />
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">1.<span style=""> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">Ministry of Justice<span style="">, <i style="">Zairyuu Shikakubetsu Gaikokujin Tourokushasuu no Suii</i>, July 2007 [cited 2009 October 19]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.moj.go.jp/PRESS/090710-1/090710-5.pdf">http://www.moj.go.jp/PRESS/090710-1/090710-5.pdf</a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="'font-size:"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><span style="">2.<span style=""> </span></span>Sakura International Legal Office<span style="">, <i style="">Teijuusha</i><span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 19]; Available from: </span><a href="http://www.sakura-ilo.com/shikaku/teiju1.html">http://www.sakura-ilo.com/shikaku/teiju1.html</a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">3.<span style=""> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare,<i style=""><span style=""> Nikkeijin Rishokusha ni taisuru Kikoku Shien Jigyou no Jisshi, </span></i><span style="">March 31, 2009 [cited 2009 October 19]; Available from: http://www.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/2009/03/h0331-10.html<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">4.<span style=""> </span>Igarashi, Makoto, <i style="">Nikkeijin no Kikokushien Jigyou Sainyuukoku Seigen ha Gensoku 3nenkan</i>, in <i style="">Asahi Shimbun</i>, May 5, 2009 [cited 2009 October 16]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/0511/TKY200905110259.html">http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/0511/TKY200905110259.html</a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">5.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Nikkei Burajirujin Kukyou Shoku Ushinai Seikatsu Hogo Shinsei ga Kyuuzou</i>, in <i style="">Asahi Shimbun</i>, December 15, 2009<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 December 17]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.asahi.com/kansai/sumai/news/OSK200912150071_01.html">http://chubu.yomiuri.co.jp/news_top/090727_1.htm</a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">6.<span style=""> </span>Tabuchi, Hiroko, <i style="">Japan Pays Foreign Workers to Go Home</i>, in the <i style="">New York Times</i>, April 22, 2009<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 22]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/23/business/global/23immigrant.html">http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/23/business/global/23immigrant.html</a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US" style="';font-size:10.0pt';"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><span style="">7.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Nikeijin Shitsugyousha he no Kikoku Ryohi Shikyuu ni Sanpi no Koe, </i>in<i style=""> Asahi Shimbun, </i>April 12, 2009<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 22]; Available from: <i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://mytown.asahi.com/shizuoka/news.php?k_id=23000120904130001">http://mytown.asahi.com/shizuoka/news.php?k_id=23000120904130001</a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">8.<span style=""> </span><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Nagoya</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">International</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Center</st1:placetype></st1:place>, <i style="">Ima Gaikokuseki Rodousha ha? NIC he no Soudan kara</i>, in <i style="">Chikyuu wo Kangeru</i>, Volume 18, Winter/Spring, 2009<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 22]; Available from: </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.nic-nagoya.or.jp/japanese/kokusai_center_news/chikyu_wo_kangaeru/chikyu_wo_kangaeru2009_04.htm">http://www.nic-nagoya.or.jp/japanese/kokusai_center_news/chikyu_wo_kangaeru/chikyu_wo_kangaeru2009_04.htm</a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.nic-nagoya.or.jp/japanese/kokusai_center_news/chikyu_wo_kangaeru/chikyu_wo_kangaeru2009_04.htm"></a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></span><p></p> Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5395491748226452930.post-40402625192427883432009-10-14T10:21:00.000-04:002009-10-14T10:53:27.963-04:00Increasing Japan's Birthrate<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="isiresearchsoft-com/cwyw" name="citation"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) }st2\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal"><st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Japan</span></st1:country-region></st1:place><span lang="EN-US">’s government is desperate to boost its sluggish birthrate <st2:citation st="on">(1.37 in 2008)</st2:citation> [1], and relies heavily on financial incentives to do so. Today, I’ll discuss the lump-sum birth payment, which is one of several such programs. The government called a recent increase in the payment an “emergency response” to the low birthrate [2].<o:p></o:p>This “emergency response” raises two important questions: how far will this one-time payment of 420,000yen per child go for expectant parents? And, more significantly, is financial support really the best way to raise <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s low birthrate? </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The lump-sum payment fills a gap in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s regular health insurance; because the health insurance system does not cover healthy childbirth, the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare offers parents the lump-sum at the birth of each child. As of October 1, 2009 the government will pay up to 420,000yen to the medical establishment where the child was born. If medical bills are less than the upper limit, parents apply to receive the remainder; if costs are higher, the parents must pay the further costs out-of-pocket [3]. Prior to October 1, 2009, the maximum government payment was 380,000yen, and parents had to pay all costs out-of-pocket before receiving the government reimbursement. </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">While parents certainly appreciate the extra 40,000yen that they now receive per birth, the increase can hardly make a significant difference to most families. According to a poll conducted in early 2009, the average hospital charge for giving birth was 424,000yen. This means that the new rate covers, or almost covers, the fees associated with giving birth for many mothers [4]. However, the increase will not defray other costs of pregnancy, such as pre-labor doctor visits and other personal expenses, not to mention the money required to feed, clothe, and educate the child. </span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Adults of child-bearing age are hyper-sensitive to the economic burden of raising a child. A full 86% of the respondents to a government survey of childless adults said they wanted to have 2 or more children, but most of these also felt that they would be unable to have as many children as they would like [5]. <span style=""> </span>Far and away, the number one reason for this was the financial difficulties [6].</span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The survey data also suggest the depth of these economic difficulties. 75% of the male and 81% of the female respondents indicated that an annual household income of at least 5 million yen is necessary to have even one child [7].<span style=""> </span>However, this income is far out of reach for many families. <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Japan</st1:country-region></st1:place>’s median household income is less than 4.6 million [8] and because incomes rise with age, a significant proportion of those below the median must be young families. </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">This financial pictures indicates that financial incentives should be a key government tool to increase the birthrate, but the new 420,000yen payment does not come close to closing the yearly income gap for families at our below the median income; much more ambitious measures will be required to make a real difference.</span></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal">
<br /><span lang="EN-US"></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CHHOLBR%7E1.HMD%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:displayhorizontaldrawinggridevery>0</w:DisplayHorizontalDrawingGridEvery> <w:displayverticaldrawinggridevery>2</w:DisplayVerticalDrawingGridEvery> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:spaceforul/> <w:balancesinglebytedoublebytewidth/> <w:donotleavebackslashalone/> <w:ultrailspace/> <w:donotexpandshiftreturn/> <w:adjustlineheightintable/> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-alt:"MS Mincho"; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} @font-face {font-family:Century; panose-1:2 4 6 4 5 5 5 2 3 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:647 0 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@MS 明朝"; panose-1:2 2 6 9 4 2 5 8 3 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:fixed; mso-font-signature:-1610612033 1757936891 16 0 131231 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0mm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-align:justify; text-justify:inter-ideograph; mso-pagination:none; font-size:10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Century; mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning:1.0pt;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} /* Page Definitions */ @page {mso-page-border-surround-header:no; mso-page-border-surround-footer:no;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:99.25pt 30.0mm 30.0mm 30.0mm; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0mm 5.4pt 0mm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0mm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -34.2pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">1.<span style=""> </span>Asahi Shimbun, <i> 08nen Shusshouritsu 1.37, 3nen Renzokuzou Hadome ha Kakarazu </i>, June 3, 2009 [cited 2009 October 14]; Available from: <a href="http://www.asahi.com/edu/kosodate/news/TKY200906030278.html">http://www.asahi.com/edu/kosodate/news/TKY200906030278.html</a> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">2.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, <i style="">Anshin shite Shussan wo shite itadaku tame, Shussan Ikuji Ichijikin ni tsuite ha, Ika no you ni Minaoshimasu </i>2009<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 5]; Available from: <a href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/iryouhoken/iryouhoken09/07-1b.pdf">http://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/iryouhoken/iryouhoken09/07-1b.pdf</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">3.<span style=""> </span><i style="">Shussan Ikuji Ichijikin no Shikyuukaku to Shikyuu Houhou ga Kawarimasu </i>September 14, 2009 [cited 2009 October 5]; Available from: <a href="http://www.kyoukaikenpo.or.jp/8,24316,39.html">http://www.kyoukaikenpo.or.jp/8,24316,39.html</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">4.<span style=""> </span>Takahashi, Y., <i style="">Shussan Hiyou, Heikin 42 Man En<span style=""> </span>Saikou ha Tokyo, Saitei ha Kumamoto</i>, in <i style="">Asahi Shimbun</i>. May 25, 2009 [cited 2009 October 13]; Available from: <a href="http://www.asahi.com/health/news/TKY200905230096.html">http://www.asahi.com/health/news/TKY200905230096.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">5.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, <i style="">Shoushiki ni Kansuru Ishiki Chousa Kenkyuu</i>.<span style=""> </span>2004<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 8]; Available from: <a href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/2004/08/h0813-2/dl/12.pdf">http://www.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/2004/08/h0813-2/dl/12.pdf</a>. Figure 4-6 p. 59.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">6.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, <i style="">Shoushiki ni Kansuru Ishiki Chousa Kenkyuu</i>.<span style=""> </span>2004<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 8]; Available from: <a href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/2004/08/h0813-2/dl/12.pdf">http://www.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/2004/08/h0813-2/dl/12.pdf</a>. Figure 4-7-1 p. 60.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.9pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -35.9pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US"><span style="'mso-element:field-end'"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">7.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, <i style="">Shoushiki ni Kansuru Ishiki Chousa <o:p></o:p></i></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left;" align="left"><i style=""><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">Kenkyuu</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">.<span style=""> </span>2004<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 8]; Available from: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 34.2pt; text-align: left;" align="left"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;"><a href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/2004/08/h0813-2/dl/12.pdf">http://www.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/2004/08/h0813-2/dl/12.pdf</a>. <span style=""> </span>Figure 4-8 p. 62<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;" align="left"><!--[if supportFields]><span lang="EN-US"><span style="'mso-element:field-begin'"></span><span style="'mso-spacerun:yes'"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style="'mso-element:"></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10;">2.<span style=""> </span>Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, <i style="">Kaku Sedai no Shotoku Nado no Joukyou </i>2004<span style=""> </span>[cited 2009 October 13]; Available from: <a href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/hw/k-tyosa/k-tyosa06/2-1.html">http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/hw/k-tyosa/k-tyosa06/2-1.html </a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p></p> Hilary Holbrowhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13520451593742914159noreply@blogger.com0